What Causes Aggression Is It an ‘Instinct’ or a ‘Learned...

What causes aggression? Is it an ‘instinct’ or a ‘learned behaviour’? (a) Compare and contrast the views of any two psychological domains on the causes of aggression. (b) Evaluate the validity of their claims in the order to reach an informed decision about the causes of aggression. In order to explore the causes of aggressive behaviour, we have to be clear about what we mean by aggressive behaviour. The psychological definitions of aggression are determined by theoretical perspectives and there is no consensus within or across the sciences about its components. For example some researchers support that aggression is an inborn, instinctive process based on which we intend to harm others. Such approaches adopt a definition that places†¦show more content†¦Their main focus has been to look at how the brain functions and how it can control aggression. The behaviourist approach view aggression as a learned behaviour and place significance on environmental influences rather then internal drives. They see aggression as a particular class of voluntary responses, which are acquired and modified by the means of reinforcement. This viewpoint emphasises the role of the situation rather than the person and individuals are seen as passive and as receptors of stimulation offered by the environment. The external world shapes learning by offering reinforcement and learning itself is seen as the outcome of associating certain behaviours with rewards or punishments. There are two main aspects of aggressive behaviour which have been supported by this approach: instrumental aggression and the role of frustration in aggression. Instrumental aggression is ‘aggressive behaviour which is maintained because it is positively reinforced’ (Glassman 2004, p.342). The primary goal of such aggression is not injury or harm to the victim; the aggr ession is simply a means to some other desired end. One such end could be self defence. Thus whenever the individual wishes to achieve the same environmental response, they demonstrate the same patterns of aggressive behaviour. In contrast not all acts of aggression lead to reinforcement and in contrast the individual may be punished. TheShow MoreRelatedChildren s Innate Desire For Adults Based On Rewards883 Words   |  4 Pagesdeciding the outcome of their behaviour and hence their aggressive conduct. Ferguson also discussed that aggression is distinctly different to violence. He explained the intention of the Bobo Doll to bounce back, conveyed the impression to the test subjects that it was going to hit them and thus, producing their survival instincts to ignite and respond by hitting the doll. Ferguson’s view suggested that participants were acting on survival instinct rather than aggression undermines Bandura et al. (1961)Read MoreAggression Is It ‘Nature’ or ‘Nurture’2434 Words   |  10 PagesAggression is it ‘Nature’ or ‘Nurture’ During our lifetime every one of us feels anger and aggression occasionally, some more than others, maybe as a child in the play ground or later as an adult when somebody cuts you up when you are driving along. But what causes anger and aggression and why do we all suffer from it? Well there are lots of different theories to what causes aggression and where aggressive behaviour comes from. So throughout this essay I will examine the different concepts and theoriesRead Moreâ€Å"Aggression is necessary for survival: Discuss. Base your answer on psychological theories and models introduced in class2757 Words   |  12 Pagesï » ¿ESSAY TITLE: â€Å"Aggression is necessary for survival: Discuss. Base your answer on psychological theories and models introduced in class.† ABSTRACT Basing itself on the fact that one of the fundamental purposes of the United Nations is to maintain international peace and security and to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace.( See attachment 1). The next two paragraphsRead MoreFreuds Theories on Personality Development Essay555 Words   |  3 PagesFreuds Theories on Personality Development Freud’s’ psychodynamic approach attempts to explain what drives or motivates personality development. He suggested that an individual is driven to satisfy biological urges and theses motives cause us to interact with the environment, so that early experiences play an important role. Freud identified three different parts of the mind, which are based on Read MorePsychology Is The Study Of The Mind And Behavior1389 Words   |  6 PagesPsychology is the study of the mind and behaviour. Since Psychology first emerged there has been ,many differing schools of Psychology each with different theories in which to understand human behaviour. In this essay I will explain the four major schools of psychology including psychoanalysis, behaviourism, biological and cognitive, and the major influences behind each such as Freud. Psychoanalysis is a school of thought first developed by Sigmeund Freud(1856-1939) one of the most influentialRead MoreHuman Emotions and Cognition Essay3337 Words   |  14 Pagesstates and intentions to others; and they activate emotions in others, a process that can account for angry, aggressive and violent behaviour (Macropaedia 1992: 18: 248). This essay will consider the meaning of anger, aggression and violence in terms of emotion and the activation, structure and functions of them culturally, environmentally and socially. Anger, aggression and violence are three intense sources of emotion and emotional expression, which psychologically are defined as a state of feelingRead MoreAggression Is A Common Term And A Key Concept1766 Words   |  8 Pagesâ€Å"Aggression† is a common term and a key concept when it comes to the study of human behaviour. Aggression is different from anger. It is with no doubt that everyone will have experienced anger at some point in their l ifetime and this anger may have been channelled into various forms including violence. The level of violence is variable and can even at times lead to murder. There is a close relationship between aggression and anger; however aggression is different from anger. It can be describedRead MoreInnate Theory : Innate Factors1258 Words   |  6 PagesThe following essay will set out to answer whether innate factors need to be considered in order to explain our behaviour. Throughout the essay I will look at key branches of psychology which contribute to our behaviour. I will also compare and contrast both heritable and environmental factors, this comparison will enable me to uncover the level of importance within heritability. We are led to believe that one gene can contribute to a behavioural trait, most people are unaware of the extensiveRead MorePsychology Essay on Aggression1780 Words   |  8 PagesAggression is a complex phenomenon influenced by genetic and psychosocial factors. The topics of aggression have been argued by many psychologists with different perspectives. Aggression can be described as a verbal or physical attack or even an insult such as threats, or sarcasm. Aggression can be broken down into two types, hostile and instrumental. Hostile aggression develops from feelings of anger hence; the intention is to inflict pain, for instance, someone deliberately hitting another withRead MorePsychodynamic vs Behaviourist Theory1892 Words   |  8 Pagesphilosophical speculation and reasoning over the years it has evolved and it is now also recognised as a science, to understand what psychology is all about it is necessary to know it’s origins and the theorist who brought it out of o bscurity, Sigmund Freud. He developed the Psychodynamic or Psychoanalytical perspective to enable better understanding of human behaviour these concepts will be discussed further later in this study. After Freud opened the gateway other perspectives and approaches

The Between Ancient Chinese And Their Relationships With...

People sceptical of Chinese traditional culture’s relevance to modern environmental concerns will point out that ancient Chinese had no term for nature in, as it were, the David Attenborough sense – nature as what natural historians study, and what TV nature programmes are programmes about. This does not mean that the Chinese were unable to talk about natural landscapes and wild things, nor that their concept of nature were without implications for our relationship to nature in this sense. It does indicate, though, that the Chinese were not wedded to ‘a wilderness ideal’ and that they did not emphasis a sharp distinction between the human and nature world. Leisure in the ancient Chinese study will uncover the relationship between ancient Chinese and their relationships with nature. Echoing with the introduction chapter, the definition of leisure in ancient China refers to characters of both xiu (a person leaning against a tree) and xian (refinement and the purity and peacefulness of mind). As Shuowen has it, xiu character should depict such as scene also reflects the Chinese understanding of man’s relationship with-and their worship of –nature . The concept of leisure contains harmonious relationships between human beings and nature, with humans being considered part of nature. Thus, we should not want only offend nature, but should take the reverence of nature to be natural. In ancient times, the Chinese used the term tiandi (heavens and the earth) to mean nature andShow MoreRelatedThe Chinese Traditional Culture Influences On The Outdoor Leisure And The Nature Essay1331 Words   |  6 Pages2. The Chinese Traditional Culture influences on the Outdoor Leisure and the Nature As for the definition of â€Å"nature†, western definition of nature is in its literal meanings embodied in wildness e.g. natural landscape and wild things, which is intact from human interventions, while unlike Western culture’s definition of nature, Chinese traditional culture emphasizes the coexistence between human and nature. Leisure (xiu xian) in the ancient Chinese study will uncover the relationship betweenRead MoreRoot Aesthetics : China And The Three Perfections Of The Cultivated Scholar1159 Words   |  5 Pagesthe harmonious relationship of social exchanges within the circumstances that are concrete within a particular social context. The Chinese poetic tradition believes in the existence of correlations that are fundamental and mutually implicating between the nature patterns and the human culture. This is said to be the origin of Chinese first two traditional poems. First, there is the traditional canonical where a poem was believed to invoke a pre-establish network of coloration between the world andRead MoreThe Cultural Analysis Of Outdoor Leisure Essay1732 Words   |  7 PagesChapter Five: The Cultural Analysis of Outdoor Leisure in the Select Field Cities 1. Introduction In the last chapter, the development of outdoor leisure practices in the selected cities is in tamed with the transformations of Chinese government economic strategies. With increasing disposable money, overall increased spare time compared with Maoist era, health conscious as well as the negative consequences caused by modernization in terms of high pressure of working condition with high trade-offRead MoreEssay on Taoism and Nature In Chinese Medicine 1481 Words   |  6 Pagesever developed is traditional Chinese medicine. The Taoist ideas and the importance of nature have been intertwined with Chinese Medicine from the ancient beginnings of Chinese culture. â€Å"Tao or way, is the major idea of Taoism: Man models himself on earth, earth on heaven, heaven on the way, and the way on that which is naturally so. Taoism teaches that human beings should be in harmony with nature, that is, with Tao† (Y). Taoism celebrates the forces of nature and recognizes the inter play ofRead MoreHomosexuality in China1749 Words   |  7 Pagesconservative society where do not get really open to sexual discussion. Even now, dating in high-school is considered too early and does not appropriate in China, which would cause problems in school if being found by teachers or parents. Meanwhile, Chinese attitude towards homosexual is more open than the West society. The night life for gay people are so various and at least among the young, we do not avoid talking about this topic. When the whole world is under the discussion of â€Å"equal marriage† andRead MoreDifference Between Eastern and Western Architecture1510 Words   |  7 Pagessolidification of the epic . Both ancient and spiritual civilization , human beings are a cultural form of speace . Architectural expression of a certain outlook on life ,cosmology , aesthetics and thus a comprehensive reflection of both the characteristics of the times is the concentrated expression of national culture . T he difference between Chinese and western architectural forms , the performance of cultural differences . It reflects the difference between physicial and natural environment,Read More Chinese Shih Poetry And Philosophy Essay1118 Words   |  5 Pagesthe millennia it has come to mean much more. The philosophies of the ancient Chinese people, whether they explain nature or present ways to live a just life, became so complex that simple prose could not suitably express their meaning. Yet paradoxically, the simpler, less exact form of poetry does put forth the ideas. Nowhere is this more exemplified than in the literature pertaining to the two major schools of ancient Chinese thought; Taoism and Confucianism. Poets such as Tu Fu and Po Chà ¼-i expressedRead MoreAnalysis Of Farewell My Concubine By Lillian Lee1677 Words   |  7 Pagesconvention regarding men who impersonated women in the Chinese films. In the film namely ‘’Farewell my Concubine,’’ gives a description of what initially started as something that meant well in artistic and cultural tradition of the east but was later turned into feminization of the genders in the society. Chen Kaige directed the movie in the year 1993. It is based on novel done by Lillian Lee. As such, the film follows the relationship that existed between two brothers and opera performers that acted onRead MoreAncient China And Traditional Chinese Medicine1736 Words   |  7 PagesINTRODUCTION In ancient China, life revolved around superstitious beliefs and doctrine stemming from the idea that balance and harmony were factors commanding regularity. In encompassing the human body, the beliefs, now labeled as traditional Chinese medicine, were primarily used to explain health and disease, and therefore were incorporated into medicinal practices. Ancient Chinese acupuncturists not only utilized these medicinal beliefs for remedial reasons, but for some, it was used for destructionRead MoreArt in the 21st Century 11512 Words   |  7 PagesSwedish artist who lives and works in Berlin, explores themes of fantasy, dreams and sexuality through stop motion animation. Xian is a Chinese artist living in Australia who combines traditional Chinese materials and techniques with a contemporary sculptural practice to address issues surrounding cultural displacement, identity politics and the relationship between East and West. Djurberg’s work; Putting down the prey, and Xianâ₠¬â„¢s body of work, Metaphysica. (GoMA, 2011) Although seemingly quite different

Ethics and Professional Practice for Hierarchy- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theEthics and Professional Practice for Hierarchy Management. Answer: Introduction The ethical practices are very much significant things in the modern day organizations and other fields. The organizations always follow some ethical frameworks that should be according to the ethical frameworks set up by the hierarchy management. Some significant things should always be kept in mind by the people who have to practice these ethical frameworks properly. The moral principles will have to be maintained properly indeed. Some of the important things related to ethics are the respect for the autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence and justice. The organizations and their managers have to maintain these ethics properly so that they can provide the best services to their clients in due time. The ethical frameworks will have to be maintained in the professional practices for the all the sectors (Robichaux 2012). The members of the organizations and other institutions should always comply with the ethical frameworks in their respective professional practices. It is a known fact or that all the service providers should always comply with the ethical frameworks properly. The professional practitioners are liable to provide the best services to their clients all the time and the clients should always trust the practitioners as well. They should provide the best works according to the professional standards and the work should always be competence based. Ethical frameworks The ethical frameworks for the professional practice go through some important things like the respect for the autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence and justice (Faden et al. 2013). These four principles are considered to be the basic principles for the medical professional practice. These issues are considered to be the basic pillars of the moral and ethical life. The ethical decision making can be influenced by these frameworks as well (Banks et al. 2013). The first point deals with the respect for autonomy or the persons (Holmes 2016). This point says that all the human beings will have to be respected and their individual choices will have to be given the first priority in all the cases. They can hold some essential views about all the things. They should also be free to take the proper actions according to their core set of beliefs. They will take these decisions as their values and beliefs dictate them (Hans, Van Houdenhoven and Hulshof 2012). The second point is about the non-malificence or doing no harm to the individuals. According to this point, any individual should not do any harm to any other individual intentionally. It has to be understood from the medical ethics that any doctor should first keep in mind that they should not do any harm to any patient or any other people (Timimi 2012). According to the third framework, beneficence should be taken as one of the most important aspects that says the medical practitioners should always provide the proper assistance or benefits to the needy persons. They should also make positive contributions to the welfare of these people. They should also always do some actions that should be beneficial for the people in need (Kelleher 2014). The fourth framework is about the importance of justice. This says that all the people should be treated equally. No discriminations should be made between them. This will create equality among the people. All the benefits should be distributed to all the people in the fair amount as well (Rhodes, Battin and Silvers 2012). Major contributions of this framework This framework always describes the philosophies or the principles that are essential for the American life. This framework can familiar to most of the people in many aspects. This is not according to the philosophical terms but it is very important from the medical perspectives as well. This framework can be compared from the aspect of the duty-based and outcome-based theories properly (Rhodes, Battin and Silvers 2012) The two issues like respect for autonomy and justice are duty-based but the non-maleficence and beneficence can be considered as the outcome-based theories. This framework always provides the most useful guidelines according to which the actions could be taken. This framework can also be considered as an approach that is very much compatible with the general bioethical approach and the ethical approach related to clinical practice. This framework will have to be flexible. The people will have to response to all the situations. Issues and challenges This framework has some issues like this lacks the proper moral theory that has some unifying quality. This unifying quality is indeed very important to bring all the principles together and provide the proper guideline (Rhodes, Battin and Silvers 2012) Many conflicts can arise during the implementation of this framework. However, no decision making tools have been specified here in order to resolve these conflicts. It is indeed very difficult to maintain a balance between all these principles. The matter of autonomy is different in different cultures. In some this talks about the individual autonomy but in some cases this talks about the collective or family or community autonomy. Informed consent Informed consent is one of the most important things in the medical ethics or professional practice. This aspect deals with the fact that the doctors will give information about a particular process of treatment for some disease (Faden, Beauchamp and Kass 2014). After the patients listen to the process it is up to him whether he will go through the treatment process. The patients and their families will undergo the process of understanding the main risks and benefits of this process. The patients and their families have the proper authority whether they want to undergo that treatment process (Faden, Beauchamp and Kass 2014). There are some moral or the legal issues that are linked with this process. The patients have the proper right to make all the decisions about their health. The patients are liable to give their informed consent which might be voluntary. If a person fails to provide thee informed consent before the test or the procedure it is called battery. There are some important elements or components for the informed consent (Grady 2015). These elements are the facts that the patients must have the ability to make the proper decisions. The second component is the fact that the provider of the medical facilities must provide the patients with all the necessary documents about the treatment process, tests, procedures of the tests or if the patients have any questions about it (Grady 2015) The process of checking the informed consent The patients have to give the informed consent to the clinical service providers before the beginning of the new treatment procedures. It is up to the patients whether they will take the new treatment process. The patients have all the right to take these decisions. The clinical service providers will supply all the necessary information about the clinical treatment procedure and the patients will then decide and provide their feedback to the clinical service providers (Grady 2015) The clinical service providers will ask many questions about the continuation about the treatment procedures. If the patients are happy with the things and the processes, they can say yes to the service providers. The patients do have the right to say yes or no. the matter can be put in the way if the patients and their families say yes they are giving the informed consent. However, the patients always have the right to change their minds. If the patients do not agree with the procedure or they say mo it w ill probably not affect the benefits they are getting in the future. The patients and their families will provide the answers to the service providers and the answers will be recorded for any future use (Grady 2015) If there is any discrepancy in the process, the records will be used as the proof. Thus the patients families will be given a hard copy of the records for the future as well. The families of the patients will probably have to sign a form for major issues like the blood transfusions and surgeries. This form is named the Consent for Clinical Treatment or Procedure. Limits of confidentiality when working with clients One of the most important things in the clinical relationship is the maintaining of the confidentiality (Brown, Patrick and Pasupathy 2013). All the issues and events in the participating in the clinical cases should be kept confidential. The important events like the appointment schedules, the things that will be done in the counseling sessions, all the records that would be kept for the future use have to be kep confidential as per the legal premises. The clinical service providers will have to provide the necessary information to the families of the patients on how they will keep all the things very much confidential from everybody (Brown, Patrick and Pasupathy 2013) It is to be said that the confidential things between the clients and the clinical service providers should be revealed only when the clients have signed the consent form or the clients have been harmed very seriously due to whatever cause. Professional misconduct Professional misconduct is a very serious issue in the ethical backgrounds for the organizational procedures and others (McGowan 2012). All sorts of behaviors that are not acceptable by the clients and other related people are called the professional misconduct. The professional misconduct is liable to be punished. The people who should be found guilty for performing this professional misconduct shall be duly punished indeed. There are some elements that should be put under this issue or professional misconduct. These issues and elements are the people who have obtained their licenses by fraud, the people who are indulged in the clinical practices by not conforming to the legal and ethical guidelines indeed (McGowan 2012). The people who are practicing this clinical profession and still neglect the clients are liable to be punished. If they are found to neglect the clients on some particular case, they should be punished indeed. The people who are practicing the clinical profession w ith incompetence should also be punished as well. Some other elements are practicing of the profession with being addicted to the drugs, alcohol, mental or physical disabilities. If the clinical practitioners have committed some acts of criminal violence they should be punished strictly as well. Ethical frameworks The ethical framework is one of the most important things in the building of the proper relationship between the customers and the service providers (Fawkes 2014). The service providers will always have to maintain these ethical frameworks so that they can abide by all the legal guidelines and provide their clients with the best services indeed. It has to be remembered that many options can arise while undertaking some work but the choice has to be made to complete the work ethically (Fawkes 2014) The ethical principles will have to be followed in order to get the best results indeed. The ethical principles are included in the ethical frameworks that would be helpful for the various aspects of decision making (Robbennolt and Sternlight 2013). The customers will be provided with the proper support and guidance for choosing the best products. The situations are very important for making the right decisions at the right time. If the decisions have direct impact on other people, they wil l have to be taken properly. The ethical decisions should be taken discussing the issues and coming to a decision that will be better for everybody. Person responsible for taking the ethical decisions In my opinion, it is very important to take the right decisions in all the professional practices. Some important things that have to be kept in mind like the ethical awareness in the professions. The persons at the managerial level should decide what code of ethics should be followed in the organizations. The employee should always carry out their works in an ethical way. This would be very helpful for the organizations. The top managers should direct the ways how the clients should be handled in an ethical manner. The persons who break these ethical guidelines should be fined as well. Conclusion This paper can be concluded by saying that ethical frameworks and decision making is one of the most important aspects in the professional practice. May important things have been discussed here as well like the professional misconduct, informed consent; the most important things that contribute to the ethical frameworks and the aspect of confidentiality with the clients have also been discussed here. These things are very essential for the maintenance of the ethical aspects in the professional practice and clinical research. These things will be very important for the maintaining the ethical frameworks in the professional practices. References Banks, S., Armstrong, A., Carter, K., Graham, H., Hayward, P., Henry, A., Holland, T., Holmes, C., Lee, A., McNulty, A. and Moore, N., 2013. Everyday ethics in community-based participatory research.Contemporary Social Science,8(3), pp.263-277. Brown, G.D., Patrick, T.B. and Pasupathy, K.S. eds., 2013.Health informatics: a systems perspective. Health Administration Press. Faden, R.R., Beauchamp, T.L. and Kass, N.E., 2014. Informed consent, comparative effectiveness, and learning health care.N Engl J Med,370(8), pp.766-768. Faden, R.R., Kass, N.E., Goodman, S.N., Pronovost, P., Tunis, S. and Beauchamp, T.L., 2013. An ethics framework for a learning health care system: a departure from traditional research ethics and clinical ethics.Hastings Center Report,43(s1). Fawkes, J., 2014.Public relations ethics and professionalism: The shadow of excellence. Routledge. Ferrell, O.C. and Fraedrich, J., 2015.Business ethics: Ethical decision making cases. Nelson Education. Ford, R.C. and Richardson, W.D., 2013. Ethical decision making: A review of the empirical literature. InCitation classics from the Journal of Business Ethics(pp. 19-44). Springer, Dordrecht. Grady, C., 2015. Enduring and emerging challenges of informed consent.New England Journal of Medicine,372(9), pp.855-862. Hans, E.W., Van Houdenhoven, M. and Hulshof, P.J., 2012. A framework for healthcare planning and control. InHandbook of healthcare system scheduling(pp. 303-320). Springer, Boston, MA. Holmes, D., 2016.Critical interventions in the ethics of healthcare: Challenging the principle of autonomy in bioethics. Routledge. Kelleher, J.P., 2014. Beneficence, justice, and health care.Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal,24(1), pp.27-49. McGowan, C., 2012. Patients confidentiality.Critical care nurse,32(5), pp.61-64. Rhodes, R., Battin, M. and Silvers, A. eds., 2012.Medicine and social justice: essays on the distribution of health care. Oxford University Press. Robbennolt, J.K. and Sternlight, J.R., 2013. Behavioral Legal Ethics.Ariz. St. LJ,45, p.1107. Robichaux, C., 2012. Developing ethical skills: from sensitivity to action.Critical care nurse,32(2), pp.65-72. Timimi, F.K., 2012. Medicine, morality and health care social media.BMC medicine,10(1), p.83.

The Black Death, the Late Medieval Demographic Crises, and the Standard of Living Controversies

Introduction Historical events are directly or indirectly responsible for the prevalent issues in the contemporary world. For instance, the aftermath of the Second World War is directly and indirectly responsible for the business and economic landscape that the world enjoys today.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Black Death, the Late Medieval Demographic Crises, and the Standard of Living Controversies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Similarly, occurrences such as the Black Death, the late medieval demographic crises, and the standard of living controversies that transpired in Europe many centuries ago have continued to influence Europe economically and socio-culturally. It may not be a simple task to pinpoint such influences in modern Europe, but traces of these ancient occurrences exist even to date. This essay explores these events (the Black Death, the late medieval demographic crises and the standard of living controversies) in a bid to gain a clear concept of their causal factors, incidence, and aftermath. The Black Death and other Medieval Demographic Crises The Black Death is a phrase that is commonly used to refer to a mid-fourteenth century pandemic that struck Europe and killed over one third of the population of the continent. Specifically, the adverse effects of the pandemic were severe between 1347 and 1348, which was a considerably high number of deaths to have been recorded out of a disease breakdown (Munro 8). Most literature on the Black Death tends to show consensus on the view that the pandemic was due to Bubonic Plague caused by Yersinia pestis, which is a bacterium that is associated with rodents (Cohn 719). Thus, according to some historians, rats played a major role in the spread of the plague from one location to another. The pandemic is at the center of numerous controversies. Some historians assert that it obtained its name the â€Å"Black Death† becau se its victims’ skins turned black apparently due to sub-dermal hemorrhages they suffered under the ravages of the plague (Cohn 722). Such claims make the name of the pandemic a moot point because another group of historians dispute the idea that the name originated from the discoloration of the victims’ skins, but it is instead a metaphorical expression used to allude to the terrible nature of the pandemic (Cohn 724).Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These controversies are also typical of the claims about the events that preceded the Black Death. Many historians have given varying explanations as to what led to the occurrence of such a devastating pandemic. This essay thus proceeds to explore the different perspectives on the same. Several authors have given their own accounts of what they think might have led to the Black Death. Such explanations vary from erratic climat ic patterns to low levels of hygiene among the people of medieval Europe, especially in the village settings. The aforementioned idea of the pandemic’s origin in China and spreading through trade routes into Europe is one of the explanations, which have been offered by historians about the origin and spread of the plague that caused the Black Death (Zapotoczny 2). A complete departure from the idea that the pandemic originated from the East is given with an explanation that anchors on the great famine, which was witnessed in Europe between 1314 and 1322 (Haddock and Kiesling 545). This famine was occasioned by several factors among them the almost biblical flooding of 1314 to 1317, epidemics such as the cattle panzootic that ravaged herds between 1314 and 1321 as well as the acute decline in salt supply, which limited the ability to season meat to compensate for the reduction in cereal production. In addition, wars were also a common feature of this era, and thus armies consu med much of the scarce resources. This continuum of unfavorable events exacerbated the already wanting food situation in Europe. Harvests were not only meager but were also in most cases not fit for human consumption mainly because the incessant rains leeched nitrates from the soil thus leaving the crops with nothing to enhance their growth and development. The result was crops infested with diseases such as rusts, smuts, mildews, and molds.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Black Death, the Late Medieval Demographic Crises, and the Standard of Living Controversies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More These impurities made the crops poisonous because when ingested, these substances lowered the immunity of the people and caused ill mental health as well. Considering the events of the fourteenth century, it emerges that it was a century of great agony to the continent of Europe because so much happened within a rela tively short time. However, the great famine and the events that accompanied it such as the incessant rains, ravaging wars, animal epidemics, and illnesses that emerged from consuming unhealthy food abated in the 1320s. This famine came upon Europe at a time when the continent had previously experienced a period of relative calm that had given them a carefree attitude. There was a period of sustained economic expansion and improvement of the standards of living that defied the effects of population growth. Historians report that between 800 and 1300, the population of Europe had been on a steady rise, which saw it move from below 40 million to over 80 million. This growth was accompanied by an expansion in production, which saw the standards of living rise despite the rise in population. Even though the population rose steadily, there were enough resources to match and sustain the population escalation. By the beginning of the 14th century, the population of Europe was at a point wh ere no margins were left in the production such that any slight fluctuation in the production was capable of causing a food crisis. This assertion implies that the resources had stretched to their maximum production capabilities. In addition, at the time, the European society was largely agrarian such that its well-being was anchored on the performance of crops and livestock. This inclination towards agriculture was dangerous as at the time farmers depended on natural conditions as opposed to the contemporary times where irrigation and farming best practices are a common place. Therefore, any occurrence affecting food production would put the society in a precarious situation.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More At this point, it is apparent that the Malthusian crisis was imminent upon the European people. According to Malthus, expansion and growth was only sustainable to the limit of resources; beyond that point, the world would naturally decongest itself to a level the pattern would start over again. It is true that right at the time when Europe was stretched to its limit, disaster struck causing production to decline several folds not only in crops, but in livestock as well because livestock epidemics such as the cattle panzootic swept across Europe at the time. This sequence of events tends to espouse the argument that Malthus advanced. However, what is not clear is how the erratic weather patterns such the rains and livestock epidemics came in to trigger one of the greatest famines ever recorded in annals of the world. It would be easier to claim that the great famine was a Malthusian crisis if production was maintained at pre-famine levels but people perished because the production wa s not adequate to sustain everyone. In other terms, the great famine cannot be exhaustively explained from an economics point of view, which has left many in a dilemma because though it would be easier to assume that it was a Malthusian crisis, the origin of floods and livestock epidemics is beyond economics, yet Malthus advanced his argument from an economics point of view. The Black Death, which descended on the continent in late 1340s, set in after a full decade of no major occurrences. The production levels in both the manufacturing and the agriculture industry had gone back to pre-famine levels (Munro 9). This aspect implies that an attempt to link the great famine and its effects to the Black Death may not strongly hold. In this sense, the Black Death and the great famine are independent of one another. The relationship between the two rests only in the fact that the two were among the events that added to the agonies of the 14th century Europe. They are both part of the demog raphic crises of late-medieval Europe. Statistics show that the decline in population of Europe had started to decline before the advent of the Black Death. The most illustrious example can be seen in the demographic records of Tuscany (Italy) which show a decline of between 30%-40% before the Black Death. Similar records exist for other towns and regions in Europe albeit at varying degrees of severity. In this sense, the great famine was part of a continuum of unfortunate occurrences of the 14th century that almost depopulated Europe. The Black Death is also part of the continuum as are several other outbreaks that claimed considerable numbers of lives after the Black Death. Mentioning here that the Black Death was part of a continuum of occurrences that constitute what is generally referred to as the demographic crises of late-medieval Europe, does not mean that it fits into the Malthusian argument. Like in the case of the great famine, there is no clear economics oriented explana tion that can adequately account for the Black Death. Thus the two are not linked to each other and do not fit in with the Malthusian argument. The only part of the late-medieval crises that can be explained adequately from an economics perspective and thus fit in with the argument that was advanced by Malthus are the ravaging wars that were rampant all over Europe. An important aspect of the Black Death in particular, is the rate at which it spread over the entire Europe and parts of Asia within such a short time. Several explanations are present in the literature to this effect. The disease started in Asia and came aboard merchant ships in rats and fleas as well as the merchants themselves. Its rapid spread is attributed to the flourishing trade after the great famine. Human movement was rife both within Europe and beyond because European merchants travelled everywhere. On their journeys back to their lands, they brought with them merchandise as well as all sorts of diseases. In t he process of distributing their merchandise to their European markets, the plague spread rapidly across the European continent because it is claimed to have been contagious (Zapotoczny 3). In addition, due to the generally filthy conditions of medieval Europe, rats and fleas had the opportunity to thrive and thus spread the disease unprecedentedly. Others note that it was believed to be God’s punishment due to the inequities of humanity, and thus flagellants sought to appease God through emulating the martyrdom of Jesus Christ. They were whipped and flogged in order to obtain God’s favor for themselves and the rest (Munro 12). This exposed others to their blood and through contact, the disease spread rapidly. The Black Death was incident in the entire Europe and some parts of Asia. No accounts of the pandemic spreading to other parts of the world apart from the Eurasian continent exist. There could be several reasons why such accounts do not exist in today’s li terature; however, it cannot be assumed that the pandemic was only affected Europe and Asia. Since the pandemic’s main pathways were trade routes between Asia and Europe, the Northern parts of Africa, especially Egypt, must have been affected. The pandemic is reported to have affected three continents and since Asia and Europe are the most clearly documented, the third continent must have been Africa due to its proximity to the two. The bottom line is that three out of the world’s six continents were affected by the Black Death. Effects of the Black Death and other late medieval crises Many effects followed the Black Death, but to understand them better, it is prudent to consider the economic situation of Europe before, during, and after the Black Death. There had been a protracted inflation, which ended with the onset of the fourteenth century (Munro 14). This inflation was followed by the great famine and other events that accompanied it such as animal epidemics. Aft er the great famine, the European economy picked a positive pattern and grew to pre-famine levels before the onset of the Black Death; but even then, there was an economic meltdown (Bridbury 394). Wages for laborers were at an all time high just before the Black Death, which is an indicator that the economy was doing well. This positive trend can be attributed to a departure from over reliance on agriculture because the famine had demonstrated the perils of such a lifestyle. Unfortunately, the flourishing economic activities that followed the great famine only served to worsen the Black Death by aggravating its spread. After the Black Death, employers’ scrambled for the few remaining laborers (Zapotoczny 3). What followed next was that wealth was at the disposal of a few and peasant laborers could earn several times more than before the Black Death. This pattern was replicated in the middle class with the result of increased wealth per capita. For the business community and p roperty owners, things were different for they had to pay higher wages hence lower profits (Haddock and Kiesling 549). The economic disruptions caused by the Black Death penetrated government systems occasioning some to come up with measures to stabilize their economies. For instance, the British Monarchy sought to establish ceilings for the prices of commodities and wages paid to laborers to eliminate any possibilities of their rise beyond the pre-plague levels (Zapotoczny 4). Similar trends were observed in parts of France, Germany, and Italy. Proprietors attempted to raise their incomes by seeking higher payments from their tenants. This move, coupled with the legislations that were not favorable towards peasants, led to uprisings in England and other parts of Europe in late fourteenth century (Zapotoczny 4). These unrests are considered as major contributors to the philosophical and scientific advancement in Western Europe and since they were not prevalent in Eastern Europe, it can be understood why it (Eastern Europe) trails its western counterparts (Zapotoczny 5) In the religious realm, the Black Death radically changed the position of the church in the eyes of the common person. The Black Death lowered the standing of the church leading to the sprouting of other religions and a general departure from church values among Europeans. The culture of Europe like many other aspects of life also changed after the plague. People became generally pessimistic about life and turned to alcohol and other substances that would help them to escape reality. This trend encouraged a culture of alcohol consumption, indulgence, and departure from social and moral norms of the pre-plague period among Europeans. Conclusion The occurrence of the Black Death remains unequaled in the history of the world. Although it affected Europe and significant parts of Asia, its severity transcends even global crises that have been recorded in the annals of world history. Its effects alter ed significantly the continent of Europe and traces of the culture that developed in its aftermath can still be pointed out in Europe today. It goes down as the most illustrious of all the pestilence that Europe, and even the entire world, has ever known in its history. Works Cited Cohn, Samuel. â€Å"The Black Death: End of a Paradigm.† The American Historical Review, vol.  107, no. 3, 2002, pp. 703-738. Bridbury, Anthony. â€Å"Before The Black Death.† The Economic History Review, vol. 30, no. 3, 1977, pp. 393-410. Haddock, David, and Lynne Kiesling. â€Å"The Black Death and Property Rights.† The Journal of Legal Studies, vol. 31, no. 2, 2002, pp. 545-587. Munro, John.  Before and After the Black Death: Money, Prices, and Wages in Fourteenth-Century England. PDF File. 2004. economics.utoronto.ca/public/workingPapers/UT-ECIPA-MUNRO-04-04.pdf. Zapotoczny, Walter. The Political and Social Consequences of the Black Death, 1348 – 1351. PDF file. 2006. w zaponline.com/BlackDeath.pdf. This essay on The Black Death, the Late Medieval Demographic Crises, and the Standard of Living Controversies was written and submitted by user Mina Lester to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.